The Curriculum for Excellence Modern Languages Principles and Practice document (2012, p.3) notes that language learning experiences should create curricular contexts for learners to be able to:
- develop accuracy in their modern language
- communicate in their modern language within meaningful contexts
- progress in their modern language learning and
- become more aware of the cultures associated with their L2/L3
The first three of these curricular aims – to progressively develop accuracy and fluency in a modern language – relate to processes of second language development. Research relating to this will be summarized below. Research relating to the fourth curricular aim relating to developing cultural knowledge is summarised in the Contexts and Culture research TILE.
The process of second language development
Second language researchers have found there to be three key aspects of second language development:
- developing accuracy – the ability to produce error-free language
- developing fluency – the ability to use the L2 to meaningfully communicate
- developing complexity – the ability to use an increasingly varied range of L2 vocabulary & structures
(Skehan, 1998; Ellis 2008)
These map directly onto the first three aims of the CfE Modern Languages Principles and Practice presented above, which focus on creating contexts to develop learners’ L2 (i) accuracy, (ii) communication and (iii) progression. Understanding that there are three components of language learning is crucial to to curriculum design for languages – as different language learning activities will be required for building accuracy, fluency, and complexity. Developing these skills is dependent on learning activities where learners are encouraged to focus on relevant vocabulary items or structures in a second language and on creating opportunities for learners to be regularly exposed to, and to practice their language e.g., by embedding language in daily classroom routines and in IDL topics.
Detailed information about these pedagogical approaches, with examples from practice, is provided in the Language Learning TILE. Below, we will explore how understanding of progression in second language development can inform curricular planning for languages.
Progression in second language development
The concept of progression in language learning can seem deceptively simple according to textbooks, curricular materials and even theory. For example:
- textbooks can reflect a view that progression in language learning is achieved principally by extending vocabulary across topics
- the organisation of curricular frameworks (such as the Curriculum for Excellence Experiences & Outcomes and Benchmarks) into systematic levels of attainment offer a ‘ladder metaphor of language development’ (Mitchell, 2003, p.17), which suggests that learners will extend and deepen their language competence in a linear fashion
- theories that view second language learning in terms of ‘skill learning’ (DeKeyser,2001) argue that language learning, like other learning, develops from declarative knowledge (knowledge a learner is aware of having,e.g a grammar rule), into procedural knowledge (knowledge which can be used in practice), into automatized knowledge (where one can use the knowledge without thinking about it).
However, as stated previously, realising that that second language acquisition involves the development of three key elements: accuracy, fluency and complexity (Skehan, 1998; Ellis 2008). This explains why the progression in language learning is not a linear process, where increased levels of complexity are straightforwardly and systematically achieved. Instead, it is rather a ‘complex and recursive process, with multiple interconnections and backslidings, and complex trade-offs between advances in accuracy, fluency and complexity.’ (Mitchell, 2003, p.17).
Lightbrown (2013) notes the development of languages can be greatly enhanced by opportunities for learners to practice their language in different contexts, for example, when discussing learning within another curricular area. Mitchell (2003, p.18) notes, however, that teachers should expect such activities, even when scaffolded, to ‘threaten accuracy in the short term’ even though ‘in the long term [they] are central to promoting fluency and increased complexity.’ One theoretical explanation for this (cognitive approaches to language learning) suggests there is a limit to how much information a learner can pay attention to at any one time. In contexts where a learner is using a high level of cognitive resource to focus on the content and meaning of the interaction – such as when using a L2 in a new curricular context – there is arguably less cognitive resource available to focus on linguistic accuracy (Schmidt, 2001).
In other words, progressing in one area may result in recursive short-term regression in another. This is to be expected and can be supported by a wide range of strategies– for example, regular exposure to target language vocabulary or structures embedded in the daily life of the class and in topic work, or direct language teaching of grammar to develop accuracy, and opportunities for learners to practice their language in different learning contexts to consolidate and extend their learning.
Detailed curricular planning should be informed by evidence of learners’ achievements and learning needs. Both the Curriculum for Excellence and research on language learning underline the key role of the learner in assessing their own achievements (and reflecting on the learning strategies that supported such success), and in planning next steps in their language learning (O’ Malley & Chamot, 1990). Jones (2005) notes that such reflection could involve self-assessment, peer-assessment or working with a teacher (Jones, 2005). Grenfell & Harris (2017) argue that learner involvement in evaluating and planning learning can increase learner agency, autonomy and motivation in their language learning within and out with the school context.
The sections in this TILE are informed by research. The aim is to support you in enriching the curriculum rationale for languages, to plan for languages at and across the primary or secondary school stages, and to support assessment and achievement in languages. We hope that the sections will help colleagues build a rigorous curriculum for languages and use learning and assessment activities effectively to support learners’ awareness of the skills required to be an effective learner of languages.
