Language learning
This research summary will provide a short overview of what the research tells us about second language learning in the context of three of the key pedagogies recommended in the 1+2 languages strategy (i) embedding the modern language into the life and work of the school (ii) discrete language lessons and (iii) interdisciplinary learning. These three pedagogies permeate the six sections below on language learning at the primary and secondary school stages.
Embedding languages into the life and work of the school
As noted in the section on embedding language below, the 1+2 languages strategy intends that learners are regularly exposed to their L2 in social language (greetings, learner requests, informal conversations), in classroom language (daily routines, learning activity instructions, feedback), and in topic language (terminology, structures required to discuss a topic in the L2).
This focus on embedded language links to research in second language learning which makes a distinction between input (the second language that the learner is exposed to) and intake (the second language that the learners acquire). Saville-Troike & Barto (2016) note that target language intake is facilitated by frequent encounters with target language vocabulary and structures within different learning contexts.
By target language vocabulary and structures, we mean the key vocabulary and the phrases or ‘formulaic units’ (Simpson-Vlach & Ellis, 2010), which are important for that stage of target language acquisition. From Second Level of the CfE onwards, ‘structures’ will also include explicit knowledge of grammar, links to L1 literacy and links across languages. By different learning contexts, we mean:
- engaging with the vocabulary/structure in receptive (listening and reading) and productive (speaking and writing) modes, and
- engaging with the vocabulary/structure in different learning contexts within the classroom (daily routine, discrete language lessons, in classroom wall displays, within other curricular areas) and out with the classroom.
It is difficult to specify the frequency of exposure to a word or structure required to enable acquisition, as the process of noticing and learning language differs between individuals. However, research conducted by Nation (2014) in relation to vocabulary acquisition notes:
‘The more [vocabulary] is repeated, the more likely it is to be learned … there is no set number of repetitions for learning to occur, but a minimum would be at least eight, and the more the better.’ (Nation, 2014, p.43)
Nation’s (2014) research thus underlines the importance of embedding language across learning so that pupils are regularly exposed to new target language vocabulary. In terms of contexts for learning, Nation (2014) notes that although ‘meeting’ a word when reading or when listening to the teacher is important, ‘using’ a word when writing or speaking is more powerful to learning as the learner has to retrieve the target-language vocabulary item from memory. The teacher should thus plan opportunities for learners to use new words and structures in both receptive (listening/reading) and productive (speaking/writing) modes in different learning contexts in the classroom and school. These approaches will increase the likelihood that language input will become intake. Professor Virginia Gathercole, a specialist in bilingual language acquisition underlines the importance of embedding to second language learning when she notes:
‘Exposure is critical. Children will not learn a language if they do not hear it. Children will not learn to read a language if they do not see it written.’ (Gathercole, 2018, p.239)
Language learning through embedding is enhanced by discrete language learning and by using the modern language in a range of relevant curricular contexts, topics which are discussed below.
Discrete language learning
Discrete language learning refers to learning activities where learners are encouraged to focus on relevant parts of a second language (vocabulary items or grammatical structures). Research shows that repeated school-based exposure to a second language (embedding language) is enhanced by discrete language learning activities which cause pupils to ‘notice’ key vocabulary or grammatical aspects of the second language, and which provide opportunities for learners to deepen their understanding of these aspects of language (Schmidt, 2001).
The Curriculum for Excellence Modern Languages Principles and Practice document reflects this research finding about the importance of discrete language learning. It notes that:
“Appropriate, regular formal language learning input will be needed at all stages in order to ensure learners acquire a greater depth of understanding beyond embedding.”
(2010, p. 3)
The Curriculum for Excellence Principles and Practice document notes that discrete language teaching might involve pupils engaging with new vocabulary items in Primary 1 or becoming aware of adjectival agreement in their L2 in Primary 4 (2010, p.3). By the upper primary and secondary school stage, pupils will be acquiring a range of more complex L2 language structures through discrete language teaching.
In terms of pedagogical processes for L2 discrete language learning, Lyster (2018) argues there to be a four-stage process for pupils acquiring new language structures: noticing, awareness-raising, guided practice and autonomous practice. These four stages are summarized below:
- the ‘noticing’ phase involves learners ‘noticing’ the new structure in context (for example when used by a teacher or in a piece of writing which regularly shows the structure)
- the second phase involves ‘awareness raising’ activities, where pupils have the opportunity to learn more about the rules and patterns of the new structure,
- the third phase involves ‘guided practice’ activities, where pupils can receive corrective feedback on their use of the structure so that they can use it accurately
- the fourth and final phase involves ‘autonomous practice’, where pupils have the opportunity to practice their new language structure in meaningful contexts (e.g. in classroom routines, in peer conversation, in language classes, in other curricular areas) to build confidence and fluency.
The final stage of Lyster’s (2018) approach thus shows how discrete language learning links both to embedding language in the daily life of the classroom (classroom routines, social language) and to interdisciplinary learning, which will be discussed below.
Interdisciplinary learning
As noted above, Lyster (2018) suggests interdisciplinary learning as a valuable area for learners to practice, and to build confidence and fluency in, their language understanding and use. When planning for interdisciplinary language learning, Ortega (2007) highlights the importance of language practice activities being ‘meaningful’ both in terms of relevant to a pupil’s age and interests, and in terms of language learning. In relation to language learning, she argues that the IDL activity should focus on the forms of the language that the pupils are currently working to acquire and should involve peer-to-peer interaction and communication in the modern language.
Ortega’s (2007) point that language practice activities should focus on the language structures that pupils are working to acquire is supported by Mitchell (2003, p.22) who notes that ‘re-using or restructuring memorised expressions, grammar patterns and vocabulary and applying them in new contexts’ is a key element of consolidating and extending language learning. This principle is reflected in the Benchmarks for Modern Languages (2017, p.3) where a key aspect of demonstrating achievement of a level – in addition to showing ‘breadth of learning’ and ‘responding consistently well to the level of challenge’ – is for pupils to ‘demonstrate application of what they have learned in new and unfamiliar situations.’
The Contexts and Culture TILE explores a range of possible contexts for learners to demonstrate and extend their language learning.
